Scholarly Literature

Research on the Impostor Phenomenon

The Impostor Phenomenon has been studied in countless peer-reviewed articles since the seminal work of Clance and Imes in 1978. It has been translated into over 30 languages and researched in over 59 countries. This page features a curated selection of key works — from the foundational research to current scholarship on identity, prevalence, and evidence-based support — each with a plain-language summary.

Foundational WorksScale Development & MeasurementPrevalence & PopulationsIdentity, Race & EquityClinical & Therapeutic Approaches

Foundational Works

The original papers that identified, named, and defined the Impostor Phenomenon.

Seminal Journal Article

Clance, P. R., & Imes, S. A. (1978). The impostor phenomenon in high achieving women: Dynamics and therapeutic intervention. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice, 15(3), 241–247. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0086006

The paper that started it all. Based on clinical observations of over 150 high-achieving women, Clance and Imes described a recurring internal experience: despite clear evidence of accomplishment, these individuals felt like intellectual frauds who had somehow fooled others into overestimating their abilities. They named this experience the "Impostor Phenomenon" and outlined its key dynamics, including the fear of being "found out," difficulty internalizing success, and a persistent cycle of anxiety, overpreparation, and temporary relief that never resolved the underlying doubt.

Key findings
  • —Named and formally described the Impostor Phenomenon based on clinical observation
  • —Identified two common patterns: the "bright lady" and the "exceptional career woman"
  • —Identified the Clance Imes Impostor Phenomenon Cycle that describes a self-perpetuating cycle that can maintain IP involving 2 types of exhausting workstyles and subsequently discounting one's successes through various specific cognitive beliefs.
  • —Distinguished IP from low self-esteem — IP involves specific achievement contexts, not global self-worth

For researchers & clinicians: This is the foundational citation for all IP research. DOI links to a stable APA record. Note that early framing was limited to women; subsequent research substantially broadened the population.

Seminal Book

Clance, P. R. (1985). The impostor phenomenon: Overcoming the fear that haunts your success. Atlanta, GA: Peachtree.

A companion volume by Dr. Clance written for a general audience, this book provides practical guidance for individuals who recognize impostor feelings in their own lives. It describes how these internal patterns develop, how they are sustained over time, and offers evidence-informed strategies for beginning to attribute success more accurately. Written accessibly without sacrificing clinical depth, it extends the reach of early IP research beyond the therapy room.

Key findings
  • —Provides accessible, practical guidance for individuals experiencing impostor feelings
  • —Describes the internal patterns and cycles that sustain impostor experiences over time
  • —Offers early evidence-informed strategies for internalizing success and reducing self-doubt
  • —Extends the clinical framework to a broader, general audience
Seminal Book

Clance, P. R. (1985). The impostor phenomenon: When success makes you feel like a fake. Atlanta, GA: Peachtree Publishers.

Dr. Clance's book expanded the concept beyond its original clinical setting and made it accessible to a broader audience. It introduced the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS) and provided detailed descriptions of how impostor feelings manifest, why they persist, and what individuals can do to begin shifting their experience. The book remains a foundational text and the primary source for the validated scale items and scoring bands used in this digital tool.

Key findings
  • —Introduced the 20-item CIPS as a validated measurement instrument
  • —Established the four score interpretation bands (few / moderate / frequent / intense)
  • —Extended the phenomenon beyond women to include men and diverse professional contexts
  • —Offered early evidence-based strategies for internalizing success

For researchers & clinicians: This is the primary citation for the CIPS scale items and scoring. The copyright for the scale is held by Dr. Clance. Reprinted by permission.

Scale Development & Measurement

Research on developing and validating the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS).

Journal Article

Chrisman, S. M., Pieper, W. A., Clance, P. R., Holland, C. L., & Glickauf-Hughes, C. (1995). Validation of the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 65(3), 456–467. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa6503_6

This study formally validated the CIPS as a psychometric instrument, examining its reliability, factor structure, and relationships with related constructs. The authors confirmed that the scale measures a coherent and stable construct, demonstrated its convergent and discriminant validity, and supported the four-band scoring interpretation that remains in use today. This validation study is the primary psychometric basis for using the CIPS in research and clinical settings.

Key findings
  • —Confirmed acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha) for the CIPS
  • —Supported the four-band scoring structure (≤40, 41–60, 61–80, 81+)
  • —Demonstrated convergent and discriminatory validity with related constructs including anxiety and self-esteem
  • —Established the CIPS as appropriate for use across genders
  • —Established a cut-off score of 61 reflects significant levels of distress

For researchers & clinicians: This is the primary psychometric validation citation for the CIPS. Required citation when using the scale in research.

Prevalence & Populations

Studies examining how common IP experiences are across different groups and contexts.

Review

Sakulku, J., & Alexander, J. (2011). The impostor phenomenon. International Journal of Behavioral Science, 6(1), 75–97.

A widely cited review article that synthesized decades of research on the Impostor Phenomenon, estimating that approximately 70% of people will experience impostor feelings at some point in their lives. The authors reviewed prevalence across gender, race, age, and occupational context, and examined how IP intersects with personality traits, mental health, and professional outcomes. This paper is often cited to convey how common the experience is.

Key findings
  • —Estimated ~70% of people experience impostor feelings at some point in their lives
  • —Documented IP across diverse genders, ages, ethnicities, and professions
  • —Found IP associated with anxiety, depression, and low job satisfaction
  • —Noted that IP does not correlate with actual competence or performance

For researchers & clinicians: Frequently cited for the 70% prevalence estimate. Note that this figure comes from a narrative review rather than a single empirical study, so it should be cited with appropriate context.

Review

Bravata, D. M., Watts, S. A., Keefer, A. L., Madhusudhan, D. K., Taylor, K. T., Clark, D. M., Nelson, R. S., Cokley, K. O., & Hagg, H. K. (2020). Prevalence, predictors, and treatment of impostor syndrome: A systematic review. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 35, 1252–1275. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-019-05364-1

A comprehensive systematic review of the Impostor Phenomenon examining prevalence rates, risk factors, and the evidence base for interventions. The authors synthesized findings from 62 studies and found IP prevalence ranging from 9% to 82% depending on the population and measure used. Importantly, the review identified that IP is significantly associated with burnout, anxiety, depression, and reduced job satisfaction — and that targeted interventions, including group therapy and psychoeducation, show promise in reducing IP experiences.

Key findings
  • —Prevalence rates ranged from 9–82% across studies, depending on population and measure
  • —IP was significantly associated with burnout, anxiety, depression, and lower job satisfaction
  • —Higher rates found in women, graduate students, and healthcare professionals
  • —Group-based interventions and psychoeducation showed the most consistent evidence of benefit

For researchers & clinicians: A methodologically rigorous review of IP prevalence and treatment. Useful for citing prevalence ranges and treatment evidence. Includes a co-author (Cokley) with expertise in race and IP.

Review

Gottlieb, M., Chung, A., Battaglioli, N., Sebok-Syer, S. S., & Kalantari, A. (2020). Impostor syndrome among physicians and physicians in training: A scoping review. Medical Education, 54(2), 116–124. https://doi.org/10.1111/medu.13956

A scoping review examining the prevalence and impact of Impostor Syndrome among physicians and physicians in training. The authors found substantial rates of impostor experiences in medical populations, particularly among residents and early-career physicians. The review identifies factors that contribute to IP in medical training — including competitive environments, high-stakes evaluation, and identity-related stressors — and highlights the need for targeted institutional support.

Key findings
  • —Significant prevalence of IP among physicians and physicians in training
  • —IP particularly common among residents and early-career physicians in high-stakes environments
  • —Competitive training cultures and frequent evaluation contribute to IP experiences
  • —Calls for institutional and supervisory support structures within medical training

For researchers & clinicians: Essential reference for researchers studying IP in medical and health professions contexts. Complements the Gisselbaek et al. (2026) umbrella review.

Journal Article

Henning, K., Ey, S., & Shaw, D. (1998). Perfectionism, the impostor phenomenon and psychological adjustment in medical, dental, nursing and pharmacy students. Medical Education, 32, 456–464. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2923.1998.00234.x

An early study examining the relationship between perfectionism, impostor experiences, and psychological wellbeing in health profession students across medicine, dentistry, nursing, and pharmacy. The authors found that perfectionism and impostor feelings were significantly related and that both predicted poorer psychological adjustment. The study was among the first to document the intersection of IP with perfectionism in clinical training populations.

Key findings
  • —Perfectionism and impostor feelings were significantly correlated in health profession students
  • —Both perfectionism and IP predicted poorer psychological adjustment
  • —IP found across multiple health professions — not limited to medicine
  • —Early documentation of IP in clinical training populations, predating much subsequent research

For researchers & clinicians: An early and influential study on IP in health profession training. Useful for historical framing and for studies examining perfectionism as a correlate of IP.

Journal Article

Canning, E. A., LaCosse, J., Kroeper, K. M., & Murphy, M. C. (2020). Feeling like an imposter: The effect of perceived classroom competition on the daily psychological experiences of first-generation college students. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 11(5), 647–657.

This study examined how perceived classroom competition shapes daily impostor experiences among first-generation college students. Findings showed that competitive classroom environments amplified impostor feelings specifically for first-generation students but not continuing-generation peers, contributing to daily feelings of belonging uncertainty and negative affect. The study illustrates how institutional context and structural inequality interact to shape IP experiences.

Key findings
  • —Competitive classroom environments amplified IP specifically for first-generation college students
  • —First-generation students showed greater daily impostor feelings in competitive settings
  • —IP experiences linked to belonging uncertainty and daily negative affect
  • —Structural and environmental contexts — not just individual psychology — shape IP

For researchers & clinicians: Valuable for researchers examining IP at the intersection of social class, institutional context, and belonging. Supports situational and structural perspectives on IP.

Journal Article

Parkman, A. (2016). The imposter phenomenon in higher education: Incidence and impact. Journal of Higher Education Theory and Practice, 16(1), 51–60.

A study examining the incidence and impact of the Impostor Phenomenon in higher education settings. Parkman documents the prevalence of impostor feelings among college and university students, explores their relationship to academic performance and wellbeing, and considers how institutional characteristics may contribute to or buffer against these experiences. The study situates IP within the broader context of higher education culture.

Key findings
  • —Significant rates of IP found among higher education students
  • —IP associated with negative academic self-perceptions and wellbeing outcomes
  • —Institutional culture and environment play a role in IP incidence
  • —Highlights need for campus-level awareness and support programs

For researchers & clinicians: Useful reference for researchers studying IP in undergraduate and graduate educational settings. Provides incidence data and institutional framing.

Journal Article

Leary, M. R., Patton, K. M., Orlando, A. E., & Funk, W. W. (2000). The impostor phenomenon: Self-perceptions, reflected appraisals, and interpersonal strategies. Journal of Personality, 68(4), 725–756. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6494.00114

This study examined how individuals high in impostor feelings perceive themselves and how they believe others see them. Contrary to what might be expected, people with high impostor scores did not consistently underperform — they simply discounted their own accomplishments. The authors found that impostor feelings are shaped in part by how people interpret the evaluations of others, and that strategies like self-handicapping and modesty may paradoxically reinforce IP experiences over time.

Key findings
  • —IP is maintained partly by how individuals interpret others' evaluations of them
  • —High IP individuals are not less competent — they discount their own performance
  • —Self-handicapping and excessive modesty can entrench impostor feelings over time
  • —IP was found across gender, though expression differed

For researchers & clinicians: Useful for understanding the interpersonal and self-perception dimensions of IP. Bridges clinical and social psychological perspectives.

Journal Article

Vergauwe, J., Wille, B., Feys, M., De Fruyt, F., & Anseel, F. (2015). Fear of being exposed: The trait-relatedness of the impostor phenomenon and its relevance in the work context. Journal of Business and Psychology, 30(3), 565–581. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-014-9382-5

This study examined the Impostor Phenomenon in a professional and organizational context, investigating how IP relates to personality traits and workplace outcomes. The authors found that IP was strongly associated with neuroticism and negatively linked to career satisfaction and performance self-efficacy. They argued that IP functions as a distinct psychological experience in the workplace — not simply low self-esteem — with meaningful implications for mentorship and organizational support.

Key findings
  • —IP was significantly associated with neuroticism and lower career satisfaction
  • —IP predicted lower performance self-efficacy independent of actual performance
  • —Distinct from general self-esteem — IP is specifically tied to achievement and exposure
  • —Organizational context and mentorship practices may reduce IP over time

For researchers & clinicians: Valuable for researchers studying IP in professional, occupational, or organizational settings.

Identity, Race & Equity

Articles connecting impostor experiences to race, gender, and systemic inequality.

Journal Article

Cokley, K., Smith, L., Bernard, D., Hurst, A., Jackson, S., Stone, S., Awosogba, O., Saucer, C., Bailey, M., & Roberts, D. (2017). Impostor feelings as a moderator and mediator of the relationship between perceived discrimination and mental health among racial/ethnic minority college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64(2), 141–154. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000201

This study examined how impostor feelings interact with experiences of discrimination among racially and ethnically minoritized college students. The researchers found that IP experiences significantly amplified the negative mental health effects of perceived discrimination — meaning that students who experienced discrimination and had high IP scores showed substantially worse psychological outcomes than those who experienced discrimination alone. The study highlighted that IP is not simply an individual psychological pattern but is shaped by structural and environmental conditions.

Key findings
  • —IP moderated the relationship between perceived discrimination and mental health outcomes
  • —Students of color with high IP scores and discrimination experiences showed worst mental health outcomes
  • —Findings underscore that IP is not merely individual — it is shaped by structural context
  • —Called for institutional responses alongside individual-level interventions

For researchers & clinicians: Important for centering race and systemic factors in IP research. Challenges purely individual-level framings of the phenomenon.

Journal Article

Bernard, D. L., Lige, Q. M., Willis, H. A., Sosoo, E. E., & Neblett, E. W. (2017). Impostor phenomenon and mental health: The influence of racial discrimination and gender. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64(2), 155–166. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000197

This study examined the roles of racial discrimination and gender in shaping impostor experiences and mental health outcomes among Black college students. The findings revealed that racial discrimination was a significant predictor of IP, and that the relationship between IP and mental health differed by gender. The study underscores how racialized experiences in academic environments contribute to impostor feelings beyond individual psychology.

Key findings
  • —Racial discrimination significantly predicted impostor phenomenon experiences
  • —Gender moderated the relationship between IP and mental health outcomes
  • —Black college students' impostor experiences were shaped in part by racialized academic environments
  • —Highlights the importance of addressing racial context in IP research and intervention

For researchers & clinicians: Key citation for research on race, gender, and IP among Black college students. Complements Cokley et al. (2017) in establishing the structural dimensions of IP.

Journal Article

Cokley, K., McClain, S., Enciso, A., & Martinez, M. (2013). An examination of the impact of minority status stress and impostor feelings on the mental health of diverse ethnic minority college students. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 41(2), 82–95. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1912.2013.00029.x

This study examined the combined effects of minority status stress and impostor feelings on the mental health of ethnically diverse college students. The authors found that both minority status stress and IP independently predicted negative mental health outcomes, and that their combined effect was particularly pronounced. The study helped establish the intersecting structural and psychological dimensions of IP experiences among students of color.

Key findings
  • —Both minority status stress and impostor feelings independently predicted poorer mental health
  • —Combined effect of minority stress and IP on mental health was particularly pronounced
  • —Findings drawn from diverse ethnic minority student sample across multiple groups
  • —Calls for culturally informed counseling approaches that address both dimensions

For researchers & clinicians: Important early Cokley study establishing the relationship between structural minority stress and IP. Useful for researchers working on identity-based moderators of IP.

Journal Article

Cokley, K., Awad, G., Smith, L., Jackson, S., Awosogba, O., Hurst, A., … Roberts, D. (2015). The roles of gender stigma consciousness, impostor phenomenon and academic self-concept in the academic outcomes of women and men. Sex Roles, 73(9–10), 414–426. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-015-0516-7

This study examined how gender stigma consciousness, impostor feelings, and academic self-concept interact to shape academic outcomes for women and men. The authors found that impostor phenomenon mediated the relationship between gender stigma consciousness and academic outcomes, particularly for women. The study highlights how awareness of gender-based stereotypes can feed into impostor experiences and, in turn, affect academic performance and engagement.

Key findings
  • —IP mediated the relationship between gender stigma consciousness and academic outcomes
  • —Gender stigma consciousness was associated with higher IP, particularly for women
  • —Academic self-concept partially buffered the negative effects of IP on outcomes
  • —Highlights the role of social identity and stereotype awareness in shaping IP

For researchers & clinicians: Important for understanding gender as a structural factor in IP rather than a fixed individual trait. Bridges gender studies and IP research.

Journal Article

Stone, S., Saucer, C., Bailey, M., Garba, R., Hurst, A., Jackson, S. M., Krueger, N., & Cokley, K. (2018). Learning while Black: A culturally informed model of the impostor phenomenon for Black graduate students. Journal of Black Psychology, 44(6), 491–531. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798418786648

This study developed and tested a culturally informed model of the Impostor Phenomenon specifically for Black graduate students. The authors found that racialized experiences in academic settings — including racial battle fatigue, perceived discrimination, and microaggressions — were central to understanding IP among this population. The model challenges approaches that treat IP as purely individual and calls for institutional accountability alongside psychological support.

Key findings
  • —Developed a culturally informed model of IP specifically for Black graduate students
  • —Racialized academic experiences (discrimination, microaggressions) were central IP contributors
  • —IP cannot be fully understood without attention to structural and racial context
  • —Calls for institutional accountability and culturally responsive support approaches

For researchers & clinicians: Important theoretical contribution. One of the most cited papers on race-specific IP models. Essential reading for researchers working with Black student populations.

Journal Article

Peteet, B., Brown, C., Lige, Q., & Lanaway, D. (2015). Impostorism is associated with greater psychological distress and lower self-esteem for African American students. Current Psychology, 34(1), 154–163. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-014-9248-z

This study examined the relationship between impostor feelings, psychological distress, and self-esteem among African American college students. The findings showed that higher impostor scores were significantly associated with greater distress and lower self-esteem in this population. The study contributes to the growing literature documenting the psychological toll of IP among Black students navigating predominantly white academic institutions.

Key findings
  • —Higher IP scores associated with greater psychological distress in African American students
  • —IP significantly predicted lower self-esteem in this population
  • —Findings support the need for culturally responsive interventions for Black college students
  • —Contributes to evidence base documenting IP's mental health impact across racial groups

For researchers & clinicians: Useful for researchers and clinicians working with African American college populations. Provides evidence for IP's psychological impact within this specific demographic.

Book

Cokley, K. (Ed.). (2024). The impostor phenomenon: Psychological research, theory, and interventions. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000397-000

An edited volume bringing together leading researchers to provide a comprehensive, up-to-date examination of the Impostor Phenomenon. Contributors address the history of IP research, measurement, prevalence across diverse populations, its relationship to race and identity, and evidence-based interventions. The volume represents the current state of the field and explicitly situates IP experiences within broader social and structural contexts.

Key findings
  • —Synthesizes current research across clinical, organizational, and academic contexts
  • —Centers race, ethnicity, and identity in understanding IP experiences
  • —Reviews evidence base for interventions at individual, group, and institutional levels
  • —Advances the field beyond the original gender-focused framing

For researchers & clinicians: The most current comprehensive scholarly resource on the IP. Published by APA. Highly recommended for researchers designing studies or clinicians seeking an evidence-based overview.

Clinical & Therapeutic Approaches

Evidence-based approaches for working with and reducing impostor experiences.

Journal Article

Clance, P. R., & Lawry, S. (2024). Impostor phenomenon: Origins and treatment. In K. O. Cokley (Ed.), The impostor phenomenon: Psychological research, theory, and interventions (pp. 17–43). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000397-002

This chapter by Dr. Pauline Rose Clance and Dr. Suzann Lawry traces the origins of the Impostor Phenomenon concept and provides a comprehensive integrative framework for treatment. Drawing on decades of clinical experience and the evolving research literature, the authors describe the range of intervention approaches — from individual therapy to group formats — and lay out a coherent, evidence-informed approach to working with clients who experience impostor feelings.

Key findings
  • —Traces the origins of the IP concept from its earliest clinical observations to current research
  • —Provides an integrative clinical framework for treatment across multiple modalities
  • —Reviews individual, group, and psychoeducational approaches with clinical commentary
  • —Authored by the original IP researcher (Clance) and her long-term clinical collaborator (Lawry)

For researchers & clinicians: Essential clinical reference. Represents the most current statement from Dr. Clance on the treatment of the Impostor Phenomenon, co-authored with Dr. Lawry. Published in the definitive 2024 APA edited volume.

Book

Cokley, K. (Ed.). (2024). The impostor phenomenon: Psychological research, theory, and interventions. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000397-000

This edited volume brings together leading researchers to provide a comprehensive, up-to-date examination of the Impostor Phenomenon across research, theory, and clinical application. Contributors address history, measurement, prevalence across diverse populations, identity, and evidence-based interventions — including the chapter by Clance and Lawry (2024). The volume represents the current state of the field for clinicians seeking an authoritative overview of treatment approaches.

Key findings
  • —Synthesizes current research across clinical, organizational, and academic contexts
  • —Includes the Clance & Lawry (2024) chapter on origins and treatment
  • —Reviews evidence base for interventions at individual, group, and institutional levels
  • —Published by APA — the most comprehensive current scholarly resource on the IP

For researchers & clinicians: Recommended for clinicians seeking an evidence-based treatment overview. The Clance & Lawry chapter (pp. 17–43) is the most important clinical reference in the volume.

Journal Article

Clance, P. R., & O'Toole, M. A. (1988). The impostor phenomenon: An internal barrier to empowerment and achievement. Women & Therapy, 6(3), 51–64. https://doi.org/10.1300/J015V06N03_05

Dr. Clance and her colleague examined the Impostor Phenomenon as a psychological barrier to empowerment and professional development, with particular attention to therapeutic approaches. The paper described how IP experiences create self-perpetuating cycles — where success leads to increased fear of exposure rather than confidence — and outlined group and individual therapeutic strategies that help individuals begin to attribute success more accurately to their own abilities. It remains one of the most-cited early clinical papers on IP.

Key findings
  • —Described IP as a self-perpetuating cycle that therapy can interrupt
  • —Outlined group therapy approaches that normalize the experience and reduce isolation
  • —Identified cognitive reframing of success attribution as a key therapeutic target
  • —Noted that IP can intensify with career advancement if left unaddressed

For researchers & clinicians: Primary clinical reference from Dr. Clance. Outlines the earliest evidence-based therapeutic framework for IP. Group therapy formats remain among the best-supported interventions.

Review

Bravata, D. M., Watts, S. A., Keefer, A. L., Madhusudhan, D. K., Taylor, K. T., Clark, D. M., Nelson, R. S., Cokley, K. O., & Hagg, H. K. (2020). Prevalence, predictors, and treatment of impostor syndrome: A systematic review. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 35, 1252–1275. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-019-05364-1

The most comprehensive systematic review of the Impostor Phenomenon to date, synthesizing findings from 62 studies. The review examined prevalence rates, risk factors, and the evidence base for interventions. Prevalence ranged from 9% to 82% depending on the population and measure used. The review found IP significantly associated with burnout, anxiety, depression, and reduced job satisfaction, and identified group-based interventions and psychoeducation as showing the most consistent evidence of benefit.

Key findings
  • —Prevalence ranged from 9–82% across studies, depending on population and measure
  • —IP significantly associated with burnout, anxiety, depression, and lower job satisfaction
  • —Higher rates found in women, graduate students, and healthcare professionals
  • —Group-based interventions and psychoeducation showed most consistent evidence of benefit
  • —Published interventions specifically targeting IP were notably limited at time of review

For researchers & clinicians: Most methodologically rigorous review of IP prevalence and treatment available. Essential citation for clinical and research contexts. The wide prevalence range (9–82%) reflects genuine variation across populations and measurement approaches.

Review

Para, E., Dubreuil, P., Miquelon, P., & Martin-Krumm, C. (2024). Interventions addressing the impostor phenomenon: A scoping review. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, Article 1360540. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1360540

A scoping review mapping the range of interventions that have been conducted to address the Impostor Phenomenon in professional contexts. The review identified cognitive-behavioral approaches, psychoeducation, group-based formats, and coaching as the most commonly studied modalities. The authors found that while several intervention types show promise, the evidence base remains limited by small samples and methodological heterogeneity, and called for more rigorous prospective research.

Key findings
  • —Cognitive-behavioral therapy identified as the most commonly studied individual intervention
  • —Group-based formats particularly effective for normalizing the experience and reducing isolation
  • —Psychoeducation and coaching showing emerging evidence as lower-intensity approaches
  • —Evidence base limited by small sample sizes and varied outcome measures
  • —Calls for standardized outcomes and controlled trials in future IP intervention research

For researchers & clinicians: Most recent comprehensive mapping of IP intervention literature. Useful for researchers designing intervention studies or clinicians seeking an evidence-informed treatment framework.

Review

Gisselbaek, M., Jourdan, A., Bourquin, C., van der Vleuten, C., & Savoldelli, G. (2026). Rethinking the impostor phenomenon: An umbrella review of concept, context and interventions. Medical Education, 60(6), 607–624. https://doi.org/10.1111/medu.70076

An umbrella review — a systematic synthesis of existing systematic reviews — critically examining the concept, measurement, and interventions for the Impostor Phenomenon with particular attention to health professions education. The authors found IP is of special concern in medical and clinical training due to its links to learner wellbeing, professional development, and patient safety. The review identifies significant conceptual and measurement gaps and calls for reconceptualization of IP as a multidimensional construct.

Key findings
  • —IP in health professions education linked to learner wellbeing and professional development
  • —Reviewed interventions across CBT, coaching, psychoeducation, and systemic approaches
  • —Highlights limitations in existing measurement tools and calls for multidimensional scales
  • —Identifies patient safety implications of unaddressed IP in clinical training contexts
  • —Calls for reconceptualization of IP beyond the binary impostor/non-impostor framing

For researchers & clinicians: Strongest methodological synthesis available for clinical and medical education contexts. Useful for researchers in health professions education or those examining IP in high-stakes training environments.

Journal Article

Haskins, N. H., Hughes, K. L., Crumb, L., Smith, A. R., Brown, S. S., & Pignato, L. (2019). Postmodern womanism: Dismantling the imposter phenomenon for Black American college students. Negro Educational Review, 70(1–4), 5–25.

This article applies a postmodern womanist framework to understanding and dismantling impostor experiences among Black American college students. The authors argue that IP in this population must be understood through the intersecting lenses of race, gender, and systemic oppression, and that effective intervention requires approaches grounded in cultural identity and empowerment rather than individual deficit. The paper offers a culturally specific clinical and educational framework.

Key findings
  • —Applies postmodern womanist theory to IP intervention for Black American college women
  • —Frames IP in Black students as shaped by intersecting racial and gender oppression
  • —Calls for culturally grounded, empowerment-based intervention approaches
  • —Offers a theoretical and practical framework for counselors and educators

For researchers & clinicians: Important for clinicians and researchers working with Black college student populations. Integrates critical race and feminist perspectives into IP intervention.

Review

Zanchetta, M., Junker, S., Wolf, A. M., & Traut-Mattausch, E. (2020). Overcoming the fear that haunts your success: The effectiveness of interventions for reducing the impostor phenomenon. Frontiers in Psychology, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00405

A systematic review examining the effectiveness of interventions specifically designed to reduce impostor experiences. The authors evaluated multiple intervention types — including group-based programs, individual coaching, psychoeducation, and writing exercises — and found that structured interventions can meaningfully reduce IP scores. The review provides a useful taxonomy of intervention approaches and identifies the active ingredients most associated with positive outcomes.

Key findings
  • —Structured interventions can meaningfully reduce impostor phenomenon scores
  • —Group-based interventions and psychoeducation showed the most consistent positive effects
  • —Writing exercises and self-reflection activities showed emerging evidence of benefit
  • —Identifies active ingredients and dose characteristics associated with effective IP intervention

For researchers & clinicians: Key reference for clinicians and researchers designing IP interventions. Provides direct evidence for intervention effectiveness — a notable gap in the broader IP literature.

Journal Article

DeCandia Vitoria, A. (2021). Experiential supervision: Healing imposter phenomenon from the inside out. Clinical Supervisor, 40(2), 200–217. https://doi.org/10.1080/07325223.2020.1830215

This article examines the Impostor Phenomenon in clinical supervision, arguing that supervisors play a critical role in either reinforcing or disrupting IP experiences in supervisees. The author proposes an experiential supervision model that addresses IP from the inside out — working with the supervisee's internal experience rather than focusing only on skill development. The paper offers practical guidance for clinical supervisors working with trainees who show signs of impostor experiences.

Key findings
  • —Clinical supervisors play a critical role in shaping supervisees' impostor experiences
  • —Proposes an experiential supervision model addressing IP through internal-experiential work
  • —Identifies supervisory behaviors that reinforce or disrupt IP cycles in clinical trainees
  • —Offers practical guidance for supervisors working with IP in clinical training settings

For researchers & clinicians: Particularly relevant for clinical training programs and supervisors. Addresses IP at the training relationship level — an underexplored dimension of clinical IP intervention.

Journal Article

Hutchins, H., & Flores, J. (2021). Don't believe everything you think: Applying a cognitive processing therapy intervention to disrupting imposter phenomenon. New Horizons in Adult Education and Human Resource Development, 33(4), 33–47. https://doi.org/10.1002/nha3.20325

This article applies principles from Cognitive Processing Therapy (CPT) — originally developed for trauma — to the disruption of impostor phenomenon patterns. The authors argue that the cognitive distortions central to IP are amenable to structured CPT techniques, and outline a practical framework for applying this intervention to individuals and groups in adult learning and professional development contexts.

Key findings
  • —Applies cognitive processing therapy (CPT) principles to IP intervention
  • —Identifies the cognitive distortions central to IP as amenable to structured CPT techniques
  • —Provides a practical framework for application in adult learning and professional settings
  • —Expands the evidence base for cognitive approaches to IP beyond traditional CBT

For researchers & clinicians: Useful for clinicians and practitioners already familiar with CPT who work with clients experiencing impostor feelings. Bridges trauma-informed and achievement-focused therapeutic frameworks.

Journal Article

Magro, C. (2022). From hiding to sharing: A descriptive phenomenological study on the experience of being coached for impostor syndrome. International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching & Mentoring, S16, 68–80. https://doi.org/10.24384/0409-b325

A qualitative study using a descriptive phenomenological approach to examine the lived experience of individuals who received coaching for impostor syndrome. Participants described a shift from hiding their self-doubt to sharing it openly — a transformation facilitated by the coaching relationship itself. The study provides rich first-person accounts of how coaching supports IP recovery and highlights the importance of relational trust and psychological safety in the coaching process.

Key findings
  • —Coaching facilitated a shift from hiding impostor feelings to openly sharing and examining them
  • —The coaching relationship itself — built on trust and safety — was a key mechanism of change
  • —Participants described increased self-acceptance and reduced fear of being "found out" post-coaching
  • —Qualitative findings complement quantitative intervention studies by illuminating the lived experience

For researchers & clinicians: Valuable for coaches and clinicians working with IP. The phenomenological methodology provides depth that quantitative intervention studies cannot — particularly useful for understanding what clients actually experience during IP-focused coaching.

Journal Article

Fainstad, T., Mann, A., Suresh, K., Shah, P., Dieujuste, N., & Jones, C. (2022). Better Together: A novel online physician group coaching program to reduce burnout in trainees: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 37(9), S204–S205. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-022-07653-8

A randomized controlled trial evaluating an online group coaching program ("Better Together") designed to reduce burnout and impostor-related distress among physician trainees. The program demonstrated significant reductions in burnout and impostor syndrome scores compared to control participants. This study represents one of the stronger controlled evaluations of a structured IP and burnout intervention in a medical training population.

Key findings
  • —RCT design provides stronger causal evidence than most IP intervention studies
  • —Online group coaching format showed significant reductions in burnout and IP scores
  • —Physician trainees showed particularly high baseline rates of IP and burnout
  • —Scalable online delivery model may be applicable across health profession training programs

For researchers & clinicians: One of the few RCTs in the IP intervention literature. High methodological quality makes it a key citation for evidence-based clinical recommendations in health professions training.

About this resource library

The Impostor Phenomenon has been studied in countless peer-reviewed articles since Clance and Imes first described it in 1978. This library is a curated selection of landmark and representative works — not an exhaustive index.

Using the CIPS in research or clinical work?

Researchers, clinicians, and educators using the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale should appropriately cite the original scale and acknowledge this digital tool where applicable. See the For Researchers page for citation guidance, recommended use practices, and information about translated versions.

Questions?

Given Dr. Clance's health status, questions about this project, research, speaking engagements, and other professional inquiries should go to Dr. Suzann Lawry.

Questions about this platform or research collaborations can be directed to Ria Nagar, MSc, M.A. at rianagar@msn.com

Scale copyright: Clance, P. R. (1985). The Impostor Phenomenon: When Success Makes You Feel Like A Fake. Copyright 1985 by Pauline Rose Clance, PhD, ABPP. Reprinted by permission.

Digital tool: Nagar, R., Lawry, S., & Clance, P. R. (2026). Digital implementation of the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale.